A portmanteau (pronounced /pɔrtmænˈtoʊ/ ( listen), plural: portmanteaus or portmanteaux) or portmanteau word is used to mean a blend In linguistics, a blend is a word formed from parts of two or more other words. These parts are sometimes, but not always, morphemes of two (or more) words A word is the smallest free form in a language, in contrast to a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning. A word may consist of only one morpheme (e.g. wolf), but a single morpheme may not be able to exist as a free form (e.g. the English plural morpheme -s) or morphemes In morpheme-based morphology, a morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. In spoken language, morphemes are composed of phonemes , and in written language morphemes are composed of graphemes (the smallest units of written language) and their meanings into one new word.^[1][2][3] In linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of natural language. Linguistics encompasses a number of sub-fields. An important topical division is between the study of language structure and the study of meaning (semantics and pragmatics). Grammar encompasses morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the rules that determine how words, a portmanteau is defined as a single morph which represents two or more morphemes.^[4][5][6][7]

Meaning

"Portmanteau word" is used to describe a linguistic blend In linguistics, a blend is a word formed from parts of two or more other words. These parts are sometimes, but not always, morphemes, namely "a word formed by blending sounds from two or more distinct words and combining their meanings."^[1] This definition overlaps with the grammatical In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of sentences, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics, and pragmatics. Linguists do not normally use the term contraction A contraction is the shortening of a word, syllable, or word group by omission of internal letters. In traditional grammar, contraction can denote the formation of a new word from one word or a group of words, for example, by elision. This often occurs in rendering a common sequence of words or, as in French, in maintaining a flowing sound. As an example of the latter, the words do and not become the contraction don't, a single word that represents the meaning of the combined words. A distinction can be made between the portmanteau and a contraction by noting that contractions can only be formed with two words that would otherwise appear in sequence within the sentence, whereas a portmanteau word is typically formed by combining two or more existing words that all relate to a singular concept which the portmanteau word is meant to describe. An example is the well-known portmanteau word "Spanglish", referring to speaking a mix of both Spanish and English spoken between bilingual people. In this case, there is no logical situation in which the speaker would say "Spanish English" in place of the portmanteau word in the same way they could say "do not" in place of the contraction "don't", or "we are" in place of "we're".

Origin

Examples of "portmanteau" in this sense appeared in Lewis Carroll Charles Lutwidge Dodgson , better known by the pseudonym Lewis Carroll (/ˈkærəl/, KA-rəl), was an English author, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon and photographer. His most famous writings are Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and its sequel Through the Looking-Glass, as well as the poems "The Hunting of the Snark" and "'s book Through the Looking-Glass Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There is a work of children's literature by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson). It is the sequel to Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865). The themes and settings of Through the Looking-Glass make it a kind of mirror image of Wonderland: the first book begins outdoors, in the warm month of (1871),^[1] in which Humpty Dumpty Humpty Dumpty is a character in an English language nursery rhyme, probably originally a riddle and one of the best known in the English-speaking world. He is typically portrayed as an egg and has appeared or been referred to in a large number of works of literature and popular culture. The rhyme has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 13026 explains to Alice the coinage of the unusual words in Jabberwocky "Jabberwocky" is a poem of nonsense verse written by Lewis Carroll, originally featured as a part of his novel Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There . It is considered by many to be one of the greatest nonsense poems written in the English language. The poem is sometimes used in primary schools to teach students about the,^[8] where "slithy" means "lithe and slimy" and "mimsy" is "flimsy and miserable". Humpty Dumpty tries to justify his habit of changing the meaning of words and combining them in various ways by telling Alice,

'When I use a word... it means just what I choose it to mean—neither more nor less.'

'The question is,' said Alice, 'whether you CAN make words mean so many different things.'

'The question is,' said Humpty Dumpty, 'which is to be master—that's all.'

In his introduction to The Hunting of the Snark The Hunting of the Snark is a nonsense poem written by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) in 1874, when he was 42 years old. It describes "with infinite humour the impossible voyage of an improbable crew to find an inconceivable creature". The poem borrows occasionally from Carroll's short poem Jabberwocky in Through the Looking-, Carroll uses "portmanteau" when discussing lexical selection In linguistics, a blend is a word formed from parts of two or more other words. These parts are sometimes, but not always, morphemes:

Humpty Dumpty's theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation for all. For instance, take the two words "fuming" and "furious." Make up your mind that you will say both words ... you will say "frumious."^[8]

The word "portmanteau" itself was converted by Carroll to describe the concept. "Portmanteau" comes from French porter, to carry + manteau, cloak (from Old French mantel, from Latin mantellum).^[9] In then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase The word portmanteau, is of French origin, deriving from porter and the Middle French manteau (a coat or cover), equivalent to the English mantle. The word traces back to the mid 16th century in English in which it was used in its arcane form, portemantew, to describe a bag or carrying case for clothing. At the end of the 16th century, it was. In modern French, a portemanteau (or porte-manteaux) is a clothes valet Clothes valet, also called men's valet and valet stand, is an item of furniture on which clothes may be hung. Typical features of valets include trouser hangers, jacket hangers, shoe bars, and a tray organizer for miscellaneous, day-to-day objects like wallets and keys. Some also feature jewelry boxes, a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like.

Examples

Standard English

Many neologisms A neologism ; from Greek νέος (neos 'new') + λόγος (logos 'speech') is a newly coined word that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language. Neologisms are often directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event. According to Oxford English Dictionary the are examples of blends, but many blends have become part of the lexicon.^[8] In Punch Punch was a British weekly magazine of humour and satire published from 1841 to 1992 and from 1996 to 2002. Punch material was also collected in book formats from the late nineteenth century, including Pick of the Punch annuals with cartoons and text features, Punch and the War , and A Big Bowl of Punch – which was republished a number of times in 1896, the word brunch Brunch is a combination of breakfast and lunch. The term is a portmanteau of breakfast and lunch. Often, it is a heavy meal meant to take the place of both breakfast and lunch. While common in the United States and Canada, according to Punch magazine, the term was introduced in Britain around 1896 by Hunter's Weekly, then becoming student slang (breakfast + lunch) was introduced as a "portmanteau word."^[10] The word "smog Smog is a type of air pollution; the word "smog" is a blend of smoke and fog. Modern smog is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form" was coined around 1893 or 1905 Smog is a type of air pollution; the word "smog" is a blend of smoke and fog. Modern smog is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form as a portmanteau of "smoke Smoke is a colloid and comprises a collection of airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass. It is commonly an unwanted by-product of fires ,but may also be used for pest control (cf. fumigation)," and "fog Fog is a cloud that is in contact with the ground. A cloud may be considered partly fog; for example, the part of a cloud that is suspended in the air above the ground is not considered fog, whereas the part of the cloud that comes in contact with higher ground is considered fog". In 1964, the newly independent African republic of Tanganyika Tanganyika was an East African territory lying between the Indian Ocean and the largest of the African great lakes: Lake Victoria, Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika. From 9 December 1961 to 26 April 1964 it was also an independent state. Once part of the colony of German East Africa , it comprised today's Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania with the and Zanzibar Zanzibar is a semi-autonomous part of the United Republic of Tanzania, in East Africa. It comprises the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, 25–50 kilometres (16–31 mi) off the coast of the mainland, and consists of numerous small islands and two large ones: Unguja (the main island, informally referred to as Zanzibar), and Pemba. Other chose the portmanteau word Tanzania Coordinates: 6°18′25″S 34°51′14″E / 6.307°S 34.854°E The United Republic of Tanzania is a nation in central East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian as its name.

"Wikipedia Wikipedia is a free, web-based, collaborative, multilingual encyclopedia project supported by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. Its 15 million articles have been written collaboratively by volunteers around the world, and almost all of its articles can be edited by anyone with access to the site. Wikipedia was launched in 2001 by Jimmy Wales" is an example of a portmanteau word because it combines the word "wiki Wikis may exist to serve a specific purpose, and in such cases, users use their editorial rights to remove material that is considered "off topic." Such is the case of the collaborative encyclopedia Wikipedia. In contrast, open purpose wikis accept content without firm rules as to how the content should be organized" with the word "encyclopedia An encyclopedia is a type of reference work, a compendium holding information from either all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge."

Portmanteau words may be produced by joining together proper nouns with common nouns, such as "gerrymandering Gerrymandering is a form of boundary delimitation in which electoral district or constituency boundaries are deliberately modified for electoral purposes, thereby producing a contorted or unusual shape. The resulting district is known as a gerrymander; however, that word can also refer to the process," which refers to the scheme of Massachusetts Governor Elbridge Gerry Elbridge Thomas Gerry (July 17, 1744 – November 23, 1814) was an American statesman and diplomat. As a Democratic-Republican he was selected as the fifth Vice President of the United States, serving under James Madison, from March 4, 1813, until his death a year and a half later. He was the first Vice President not to run for President of the for politically contrived redistricting: one of the districts created resembled a salamander The salamander is an amphibian of the order Urodela. As with many real creatures, pre-modern authors often ascribed fantastic qualities to it , and in recent times some have come to identify a legendary salamander as a distinct concept from the real organism. This idea is most highly developed in the occult. Where the two concepts can be in outline.

Some city names are portmanteaux of the regions they straddle: Texarkana Texarkana is a city in Bowie County, Texas, United States. It effectively functions as one half of a city which crosses a state line — the other half, the city of Texarkana, Arkansas, lies on the other side of State Line Avenue. The population of the city is 34,782 at the 2000 census spreads across the Texas-Arkansas border, while Calexico and Mexicali Mexicali is the capital of the Mexican state of Baja California. Mexicali is also the seat of the Municipality of Mexicali. Founded on March 14, 1903, Mexicali is situated on the U.S.-Mexico border adjacent to Calexico, California, and is the northernmost city in Latin America, located at 32°40′0″N 115°28′0″W / 32.666667°N 115.4666 are respectively the American and Mexican sides of a single conurbation A conurbation is a region comprising a number of cities, large towns, and other urban areas that, through population growth and physical expansion, have merged to form one continuous urban and industrially developed area. In most cases, a conurbation is a polycentric urban agglomeration, in which transportation has developed to link areas to. Kentuckiana, while generally used to specifically describe the Louisville metropolitan area, is also used (although a bit more lightly) to describe the entire stretch of the Ohio Valley The Ohio River is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River. It is approximately 1,310 miles long and is located in the Eastern United States in the adjoining states of Indiana Indiana has several metropolitan areas with populations greater than 100,000 as well as a number of smaller industrial cities and small towns. It is home to several major sports teams and athletic events including the NFL's Indianapolis Colts, the NBA's Indiana Pacers, the Indianapolis 500 motorsports race . Residents of Indiana are known as and Kentucky Kentucky is known as the "Bluegrass State", a nickname based on the fact that native bluegrass is present in many of the pastures throughout the state, based on the fertile soil. It made possible the breeding of high-quality livestock, especially thoroughbred racing horses. It is a land with diverse environments and abundant resources,.

Brand names

"FedEx FedEx Corporation , originally known as FDX Corporation, is a logistics services company, based in the United States with headquarters in Memphis, Tennessee. The name "FedEx" is a syllabic abbreviation of the name of the company's original air division, Federal Express, which was used from 1973 until 2000" portmanteaus "federal" and "express". "Amtrak The National Railroad Passenger Corporation, doing business as Amtrak , is a government-owned corporation that was organized on May 1, 1971, to provide intercity passenger train service in the United States. "Amtrak" is a portmanteau of the words "America" and "track". It is headquartered at Union Station in" is a portmanteau of the words "America" and "track Rail tracks (more commonly: railway tracks , railroad tracks or train tracks (US)) are the surface structures that support and guide trains or other rail-guided transportation vehicles." "Conrail The Consolidated Rail Corporation, commonly known as Conrail , was the primary Class I railroad in the Northeast U.S. between 1976 and 1999. The federal government created it to take over the potentially profitable lines of bankrupt carriers, including the Penn Central Transportation Company and Erie Lackawanna Railway. With the benefit of" is a portmanteau of the words "consolidated" and "rail." "AmEx" is a portmanteau of the word "American" and "Express," although these may well be thought of as mere contractions. "Verizon Verizon Communications Inc. is an American broadband and telecommunications company and a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. It was formed in 1983 as Bell Atlantic as part of the 1984 AT&T breakup into seven Baby Bells. Prior to its transformation into Verizon, Bell Atlantic had merged with another Regional Bell Operating Company," is a portmanteau of "veritas In Roman mythology, Veritas, meaning truth, was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn and the mother of Virtue. It was believed that she hid in the bottom of a holy well because she was so elusive. Her image is shown as a young virgin dressed in white. Veritas is also the name given to the Roman virtue of truthfulness, which was considered" and "horizon The horizon is the apparent line that separates earth from sky, the line that divides all visible directions into two categories: those that intersect the Earth's surface, and those that do not. At many locations, the true horizon is obscured by trees, buildings, mountains, etc., and the resulting intersection of earth and sky is called the".

Non-standard English

Many portmanteau words receive some usage but do not (yet) appear in all dictionaries. For example, a spork A spork or a foon is a hybrid form of cutlery taking the form of a spoon-like shallow scoop with three or four fork tines. Spork-like utensils, such as the terrapin fork or ice cream fork, have been manufactured since the late 1800s; patents for spork-like designs date back to at least 1874, and the word "spork" was registered as a is an eating utensil that is a combination of a spoon A spoon is a utensil consisting of a small shallow bowl, oval or round, at the end of a handle. A type of cutlery , especially as part of a place setting, it is used primarily for serving. Spoons are also used in food preparation to measure, mix, stir and toss ingredients. Present day spoons can be made from metal (notably flat silver or and fork. A skort is an item of clothing that is part skirt, part shorts. The Pegacorn is a creature that is combined with pegasus and unicorn. Another creature that is part lion and part tiger is a liger or a tigon. Jean shorts are jorts and jean hats are jats.

"Jeoportmanteau!" is a recurring category on the American television quiz show Jeopardy!. The category's name is itself a portmanteau of "Jeopardy" and "portmanteau". Responses in the category are portmanteaus constructed by fitting two words together. For example, the clue "Brett Favre or John Elway plus a knapsack" yielded the response "What is a 'quarterbackpack'?"^{[11][unreliable source?]}

Blaxploitation is a film genre/style, whose name derives from a portmanteau of "black" and "exploitation," reflecting its main theme of social problems, along with the stereotypical depiction of Black people in film.

Name-meshing

Two proper names can also be used in creating a portmanteau word in reference to the partnership between people, especially in cases where both persons are well-known, or sometimes to produce epithets such as "Billary" (referring to former United States president Bill Clinton and his wife, United States Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton). In this example of recent American political history, the purpose for blending is not so much to combine the meanings of the source words but "to suggest a resemblance of one named person to the other"; the effect is often derogatory, as linguist Benjamin Zimmer notes.^[12] In contrast, the public and even the media use portmanteaux to refer to their favorite pairings as a way to "...giv[e] people an essence of who they are within the same name."^[13] This is particularly seen in cases of fictional and real-life "supercouples." An early and well-known example, Bennifer, referred to film stars Ben Affleck and Jennifer Lopez. Other examples include Brangelina (Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie), and TomKat (Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes). In double-barreled names, the hyphen is almost pushing one name away from the other.^[13] Meshing says "I am you and you are me," notes one expert.^[13]

Portmanteaux can also be created by attaching a prefix or suffix from one word to give that association to other words. Subsequent to the Watergate scandal, it became popular to attach the suffix "-gate" to other words to describe contemporary scandals, e.g. "Filegate" for the White House FBI files controversy, Nipplegate, and Spygate, an incident involving the 2007 New England Patriots. Likewise, the suffix "-holism" or "-holic," taken from the word "alcoholism" or "alcoholic," can be added to a noun, creating a word that describes an addiction to that noun. Chocoholic, for instance, means a person who is "addicted" to chocolate. Also, the suffix "-athon" is often appended to other words to connote a similarity to a marathon (for example, telethon, phonathon, and walkathon). Adding the prefix "e-" to a noun indicates that it is related to computers (such as "e-mail" and "e-learning").

Contemporary portmanteaux include Bridezilla (a marriage of the words "bride" and "Godzilla" to describe a demanding bride-to-be) and "Gleek" (from "glee" and "geek," and signifying a fan of the television series Glee). Another example is fans of the Twilight film series, coined "Twitards," and originating from "Twilight" and "retard."

Other languages

French

Two commonly used French words such as toujours and aujourd'hui are portmanteaux of the parts that define them. Example: toujours means always, from tous meaning all, and jours meaning days; Aujourd'hui comes from au + jour + de + hui, which means today (to the day of today, literally).

Modern Hebrew

Modern Hebrew abounds with European mechanisms such as blending: "Along with kómpaktdisk ‘compact disc’, Hebrew has the blend taklitór, which consists of the Hebrew-descent taklít ‘record’ and ór ‘light’. Modern Hebrew is full of portmanteau blends [...] such as (1) arpíakh ‘smog’, from arafél ‘fog’ and píakh ‘soot’; (2) mídrakhov ‘(pedestrian) mall, promenade’, from midrakhá ‘footpath’ and rekhóv ‘street’; (3) makhazémer ‘musical’, from makhazé ‘play (n)’ and zémer ‘singing’; or (4) bohoráim ‘brunch’, from bóker ‘morning, breakfast (cf. arukhát bóker ‘breakfast’)’ and tsohoráim ‘noon, lunch (cf. arukhát tsohoráim ‘lunch’)’."^[14] There is also the uncommonly used politically incorrect term 'ashlav' which is a combination of 'ashpah' which means trash and 'lavan' which means white.

Icelandic

There is a tradition of linguistic purism in Icelandic and neologisms are frequently created from pre-existing words. Tölva ("computer") is a portmanteau of tala ("digit; number") and völva ("seeress").^[15]

Indonesian

Golput is used to refer to voters who abstain from voting, from Golongan Putih, "blank party" or "white party."^[16]

Japanese

There are many examples of borrowed word blends in Japanese. The word パソコン (pasokon^?), meaning PC, as in personal computer, is not officially an English loan word. The word does not exist in English; however, it is a uniquely Japanese contraction of the English personal computer (パーソナル・コンピュータ, pāsonaru konpyūta^?). Another example, Pokémon (ポケモン^?), is a contracted form of the English words pocket (ポケット, pokétto^?) and monster (モンスター, monsutā^?).^[17]

Sometimes Japanese and English words are blended together. One very famous example, karaoke (カラオケ, karaoké^?), is the blend of the Japanese word for empty (空っぽ, karappo^?) and the English word orchestra (オーケストラ, ōkesutora^?).

Hindi

Common name like 'Mahesh' meaning Great God, is composed of two words Maha (Great) + Ish (God). There are many examples of borrowed word blends in Hindi. Another word common in both Hindi and English is Hinglish, which refers to the vernacular of the people in India, where they mix Hindi and English in the spoken language.

Chinese

In 1927 the city of Wuhan, capital of the Hubei Province, was created by merging the three cities of Wuchang, Hankou, and Hanyang into one city.

Portmanteau morph

In linguistics, the term blend is used to refer to general combination of words, and the term "portmanteau" is reserved for the narrow sense of combining two function words. Examples of such combination include

This usage has been referred to as "portmanteau morph".^[4]

See also

• List of portmanteaus
• Border towns in the United States with portmanteau names
• Compound words
• Neologism
• Colloquialism
• Pseudo-anglicism
• Syllabic abbreviation
• Pun
• Double entendre
• Finnegans Wake (James Joyce's novel with an unusually high proportion of portmanteau neologisms)

References

1. ^ ^{a b c} Oxford English Dictionary, Portmanteau definition 4b, giving Carroll as first user, second usage appearing in 1882 in the Cornhill Magazine
2. ^ "Portmanteau". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/portmanteau. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
3. ^ "Portmanteau word". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000. http://www.bartleby.com/61/91/P0459100.html. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
4. ^ ^{a b} "What is a portmanteau morph?". LinguaLinks Library. 2003. http://www.sil.org/Linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAPortmanteauMorph.htm.
5. ^ Thomas, David (1983). An invitation to grammar. Summer Institute of Linguistics. Bangkok: Mahidol University. p. 9
6. ^ Crystal, David (1985). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics (2nd ed.). New York: Basil Blackwell. pp. 237
7. ^ Hartmann, R.R.K.; Stork, F.C. (1972). Dictionary of language and linguistics. London: Applied Science. pp. 180
8. ^ ^{a b c} Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., and Hyams, N. (2007) An Introduction to Language, Eighth Edition. Boston: Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 1-4130-1773-8.
9. ^ "Portmanteau". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.
10. ^ Punch, 1 August 1896, 58/2
11. ^ "J! Archive - Show 4675, aired 24 December 2004". http://www.j-archive.com/showgame.php?game_id=87&highlight=portmanteau. Retrieved 13 April 2009. (The clue in question is located under "Double Jeopardy")
12. ^ Zimmer, Benjamin (1 November 2005). "A perilous portmanteau?". Language Log. University of Pennsylvania. http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002610.html. Retrieved 11 November 2008.
13. ^ ^{a b c} Winterman, Denise (3 August 2006). "What a mesh". BBC News Magazine. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/5239464.stm. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
14. ^ See p. 62 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad, Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns. In Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2 (2009), pp. 40-67
15. ^ Kristján Árnason; Sigrún Helgadóttir (1991), "Terminology and Icelandic Language Policy", Behovet och nyttan av terminologiskt arbete på 90-talet, Nordterm 5, Nordterm-symposium, pp. 7-21
16. ^ "Golput - Schott’s Vocab Blog - NYTimes.com". The New York Times. 17 February 2009. http://schott.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/02/17/golput/. Retrieved 19 June 2009.
17. ^ [www.sfu.ca/gradlings/SFUWPL/ICEAL2/Rosen_E.pdf]

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